Sensory-spatial pathways to risk perception in temporary nighttime urban events: the mediating roles of lighting quality and perceived crowding

Temporary nighttime urban spaces are increasingly recognized as strategic sites for economic, social, and cultural development; however, existing scholarship has expanded beyond safety, wayfinding, and lighting-related perceptions to include broader debates on nighttime urbanism, nightlife practices, and event-led urban activation. Although studies of light festivals and other nighttime events have grown, evidence remains less integrated on how multisensory experience and event-configured spatial conditions jointly shape perceived risk in temporary nighttime settings. This study employs Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to estimate relationships among visual-audio experience, lighting quality, perceived crowding, and perceived risk, using survey data collected across four institutionally programmed event contexts in Macau. Findings reveal that lighting quality mediates risk perception, while sensory engagement moderates the impact of crowding-risk relationship, challenging assumptions that density universally heightens spatial discomfort. These insights contribute to multisensory integration and spatial cognition theories in the context of temporary urbanism, while also offering guidance for urban planners and event organizers in designing safe, immersive, and economically sustainable nighttime environments.