A new gradient scaled flooding test procedure indicated that oil is mobilized by the leading edge of the surfactant dispersion curve where the concentration is low, 1 to 10 ppm. Underoptimum, highly interfacially active blends of anionic and cationic surfactants were formulated to take advantage of the displacement mechanism. Essentially all the initial or residual crude oil was removed from shaly sand packs using approximately 0.4 percent surfactant with less than 0.1 pore volume loss.
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Wellington et al. (1997) studied this question.
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