Plant research in space and time

The striking picture depicted in Fig. 1 is an unfamiliar component of editorials; its form and blend of colours suggest a potential connection with floristics, or even taxonomy. By contrast, editorial policy, and its consequences, is generally seen as dry and colourless. In fact, the figure is a map of the consequences of editorial policy, specifically our aim to publish high-quality research across the breadth of plant science. Individual papers report on research that has been achieved with the aim of understanding a particular timescale in plant science and for a particular spatial scale. A map of the consequences of the New Phytologist editorial policy to publish high-quality research across the breadth of plant science. This picture is a smoothed and coloured representation of Fig. 2, derived from the characteristic scales of time and space in papers published in New Phytologist during 2006. The z axis (depth) is the vector from the median point of the observations (0.3 m spatially and 40 d in time) to the point for a particular paper. The depth therefore identifies the most frequent occurrence of papers surrounding the median value. The picture has been derived from the characteristic scales of time and space in papers published in New Phytologist. The depth, or z axis, of the picture represents distances of particular papers from the median found within 2006 for 227 research papers, with the lowest area indicating the closest to the median. The median was calculated spatially to be 0.3 m and 40 d in time. The less-beautiful visual representation (Fig. 2) of the actual time and space data show that, for 2006, papers have been published that range in spatial scale by 15 orders of magnitude and in time by 13 orders of magnitude. The median value is the upper of the two white dots in the centre of the figure. The lower figure is the time and space scale (the size of the printed copy of New Phytologist) taken in producing this editorial, intriguingly close to the median of the research papers. Four particular time and space scales have been delimited (A to D) as characteristic of particular avenues of research, while the rather broad fifth area is the residual after identifying A to D. Characteristic scales of time and space for research articles in New Phytologist for the year 2006. The space scale is typically the size of the target structure or organism, or the spread of observation points for geographical studies. The timescale is the target scale for the research, ranging, for example, from rates of species evolution to rapid changes in chlorophyll fluorescence. Upper white dot, median; lower white dot, time and space scale for this Editorial. Area A is the extended upper lip in the colour representation (Fig. 1) and is concerned with the evolution of plant species at continental scales of investigation. Blattner (2006) used molecular techniques to identify the rates of colonization by Hordeum into Europe, the New World and South Africa since its evolution some 12 million yr ago in southwest Asia. A phylogeographic investigation by Kropf et al. (2006) also used molecular techniques to address the long-standing debate on the importance of geographic barriers and long-distance dispersal in determining plant diversity. In this case it was determined that geographic barriers to dispersal, during climatic change, were the major but not the sole controller of disjunct distributions in alpine plants of France and Spain. Furthermore, these disjunct populations maintained higher-than-expected genetic diversity. A novel and exciting combination of genetic and palaeobotanical techniques (Magri et al., 2006) provided a new take on the origins of modern genetic diversity in European beech, with a longer time frame of influence than previously considered, from at least the Middle Pleistocene and with a cautionary note on inferring glacial refugia from limited fossil evidence. New Phytologist publishes significant research on trees (Woodward & Slater, 2007), and the long-term aspects of this research are outlined in area B. Changes in tree ring width provide a composite picture of environmental influences on tree growth over extended periods, such as a 200-yr chronology for European larch in the Italian Alps (Carrer & Urbinati, 2006). Periodic phenomena, such as masting in trees, require long-term data to extract the characteristic periodicities and environmental impacts on masting (Newbery et al., 2006). Spatial and temporal synchronicity of masting also implies additional controls, such as the large interconnecting network of ectomycorrhizas in forests, while the specific diversity of mycorrhizas themselves have also been shown to be strongly dependent on environment (Beauchamp et al., 2006). Molecular changes in gene structure are critical properties for inferring the timescale of genetic change (area A); however, the molecular characterization and expression of useful genes, in this respect, are derived from small-scale investigations (area C). Genes involved in tree xylogenesis (Foucart et al., 2006), heavy metal tolerance and hyperaccumulation (Rigola et al., 2006), and the control of rapid extension growth in bamboo (Chiu et al., 2006), indicate the wide range of processes that are investigated at the level of gene expression and using extracted cDNA. Controlled field and environment experiments (area D) are the bread and butter publications in New Phytologist and were the most numerous of all publications in 2006, being particularly diverse in research questions. Investigating the potential effects of future changes in temperature and carbon dioxide concentration were well represented (e.g. Tingey et al., 2006), as were the complexities of interactions among roots, mycorrhizas and soils (van Hees et al., 2006), and with the added dimension of herbivore control (de la Peña et al., 2006). Papers in the unlabelled part of the relationship between time and space are characterized by relatively large areas of study and are typically field-based. The studies include wide geographical spreads of field samples, such as required for establishing the chloroplast phylogeography of Sphagnum in Europe (Szövenyi et al., 2006). Pollination studies combine the benefits of naturally occurring field dynamics with the application of field manipulation to uncover the importance of pollinators and breeding systems in evolution (Perez-Barrales et al., 2006). Field studies provide the potential for longer-term studies and greater environmental heterogeneity than are practically feasible in controlled environments. The importance of habitat persistence and connectivity on the population growth of a rare species (Noel et al., 2006) provides a clear example of how environmental heterogeneity in the field is crucial for population survival though time. The research published in New Phytologist is also classified by section or research area – Physiology & Development, Environment, Interaction, and Evolution – and this overlays the scale in the last figure (Fig. 3). Research papers in the Physiology & Development section work in the scales outlined as C and D (Fig. 2), whereas the Environment and Interaction sections have broader scales in B, D and the unlabelled area. The greatest scales in time and space are the concern of research in the Evolution section, particularly in area A, but some of the work on gene expression (area C) has direct relevance to evolutionary understanding. The characteristic time and space scales of research papers, as shown in Fig. 2, classified into section (Physiology & Development, Environment, Interaction, Evolution) within New Phytologist. A key feature of the research published in New Phytologist is connectivity and relevance. As indicated, research at small time and space scales on gene expression has relevance for understanding the mechanisms of evolution. The large numbers of papers on research in controlled environments provide mechanistic and process understanding that underpins the interpretation of complex interactions in the field. The reverse is also required, where field observations require controlled environments to dissect complex field interactions. This interlinking network is a key quality of what is offered by the research published in New Phytologist.