Liquiritin and L-Dopa mitigate gaseous elemental mercury toxicity in Tillandsia usneoides: Insights into metabolic reprogramming and phytoremediation potential

Gaseous elemental mercury [Hg(0) g ] contamination has emerged as a critical global environmental threat owing to its persistent atmospheric mobility. Despite its ecological risks, the metabolic adaptation mechanisms of plants to Hg(0) g stress remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigated the physiological and metabolic responses of Tillandsia usneoide , a bioindicator for atmospheric Hg(0), to Hg(0) g exposure (∼300 μg m⁻³, an extreme concentration near point sources like Hg smelting, mining, and coal processing). Our results demonstrated that Hg(0) g induced severe oxidative stress in T. usneoide , evidenced by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide anion (O 2 - ) levels, concomitant with suppressed potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) uptake and chlorophyll biosynthesis. To counteract oxidative damage, T. usneoide activated antioxidant defenses by modulating superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) activities. Untargeted metabolomics found Hg(0) g -responsive metabolites predominantly enriched in betalain, cutin, suberine and wax biosynthesis, and tyrosine metabolism. Notably, two key metabolites, liquiritin and L -Dopa, were functionally validated to alleviate Hg(0) g toxicity in Arabidopsis thaliana . Liquiritin and L -Dopa not only reduced Hg uptake but also enhanced POD activity and glutathione (GSH) synthesis, thereby mitigating H 2 O 2 and MDA-driven oxidative stress while promoting plant growth. Taken together, this study provides the first evidence of Hg(0)-induced metabolic reprogramming in plants and proposes liquiritin and L -Dopa as promising candidates for phytoremediation strategies against Hg(0) g pollution.