Addicted or adapted? A cluster analysis of in-service teachers’ profiles of nomophobia, self-efficacy, and ICT competence

Teachers’ effective use of digital technologies is shaped not only by technical skills but also by internal factors such as self-efficacy, confidence, and patterns of digital engagement. While nomophobia has increasingly been discussed as a technology-related risk, its role within professional teaching contexts remains insufficiently understood. In particular, little is known about how nomophobia co-occurs with teachers’ ICT competence and self-efficacy, and whether these variables form distinct configurations of digital engagement. Adopting a person-centered analytical approach, this study explores in-service teachers’ internal profiles based on nomophobia, teacher self-efficacy, and ICT competence. Data were collected from 245 in-service teachers in Türkiye and analyzed using a hierarchical cluster analysis followed by k-means clustering. The results identified two distinct and contrasting in-service teacher profiles reflecting different internal configurations of nomophobia, teacher self-efficacy, and ICT competence. Chi-square tests indicated that profile membership was not significantly associated with gender or teaching level. The findings indicate that elevated nomophobia may, in some cases, accompany strong professional confidence and digital competence. This pattern suggests that nomophobia may partly reflect functional digital reliance in some professional teaching contexts rather than only problematic dependence. The study highlights the value of moving beyond uniform interpretations of technology-related anxiety and may inform the development of differentiated professional learning approaches.