GIS-based human health risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides in vegetables from the Chenab River Basin, Pakistan

= 165) from the agricultural fields across upstream tributaries of River Chenab, Punjab, Pakistan. A holistic approach, GIS Arc mapping (Kriging method) along with statistical tools (risk indices) was used for spatial interpolation of the carcinogenic risk zones and polluted zones, respectively. All vegetable samples (garlic, turnip, potato, radish and mustard) were analyzed using GCMS. The mean total concentration of organochlorine pesticides (ΣOCPs) in the investigated vegetables was 4.46 ± 0.20 ng/g (garlic) and 6.51 ± 0.36 ng/g (mustard). Across all investigated vegetables, DDT and HCH isomers were the predominant residues, with the highest mean concentrations of DDE (0.76 ng/g) and ΣHCH (1.29 ng/g) observed in mustard. The findings of the spatial interpolation of carcinogenic risk of investigated OCPs revealed that DDT and DDE exhibited spatially restricted tolerable carcinogenic risk across 15% of downstream zones near the Nullah Palkhu River Chenab confluence, whereas α-HCH and β-HCH showed pervasive tolerable risk across 100% of study areas. Consequently, the findings emphasize the need for continuous monitoring and strengthened regulatory measures to control the persistence and potential introduction of OCP residues in the study area, thereby reducing long-term human health risks and supporting sustainable agricultural practices and good health and wellbeing.