Nanotechnology in reproductive medicine: from gamete engineering to precision therapeutics

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antioxidant nanoparticles, microfluidic sperm selection and improved cryopreservation-to targeted therapies for complex disorders including premature ovarian insufficiency, polycystic ovary syndrome, and endometriosis. Despite promising preclinical outcomes, clinical translation is impeded by challenges regarding biocompatibility, large-scale manufacturing, and ethical regulation. Future perspectives emphasize the integration of multi-omics, artificial intelligence, and biocompatible material innovation to elucidate molecular mechanisms and accelerate the transition from bench to bedside, ultimately advancing precision reproductive medicine.