Processed meat in the diet: general nutritional profile–protein quality and micronutrients

Meat provides high-quality protein with excellent bioavailability and a complete amino acid profile. Meat is highly perishable, but salting, curing, smoking, cooking, drying, fermentation, or a combination of these processes, as well as advanced antimicrobial and antioxidant ingredient solutions, are implemented to slow or inhibit microbial growth. Many of these techniques have been practiced for thousands of years and have been foundational to the safe storage and utilization of animal protein throughout history. Processed meats are part of a healthy diet, but they should not be consumed in excess to avoid overconsumption of fat and sodium. In developing countries, the availability of processed meats with extended shelf-life helps prevent undernutrition and malnutrition since the digestible indispensable amino acid scores for processed meats are greater than 100%, indicating that processed meats fully meet human amino acid requirements. Processed meats are a significant source of proteins, indispensable amino acids (IAA), A and B vitamins, zinc, phosphorus, iron, and several micronutrients (Table 1). Some public health entities recommend eliminating red meat and processed meats from the diet. Not only are such recommendations not based on sound science, but they also lead to unintended repercussions among vulnerable populations since over 1.5 billion people worldwide suffer from iron deficiency and the heme-iron in red meat is one of the most bioavailable sources of iron in the diet (Kavanaugh et al., 2025). Meat products and mineral compositions Na: 47 mg P : 199 mg Fe: 0.85 mg Zn: 1.93 mg Na: 662 mg P : 144 mg Fe: 0.41 mg Zn: 1.18 mg Fe: 13.9–36.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 7–22.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 31.6 (mg/kg) Zn: 28.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 32.8 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.6 (mg/kg) Ca: 136.45–400 (mg/kg) K: 610–5800 (mg/kg) Mg: 40–410 (mg/kg) Fe: 3–197 (mg/kg) Zn: 5–29.77 (mg/kg) Cu: 977–2360 (μg/kg) Cr: 20–100 (μg/kg) Ca: 100–182 (mg/kg) K: 2475–2749 (mg/kg) Mg: 171–296.5 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.8–12.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 9.8–27.3 (mg/kg) Cu: 300–1602 (μg/kg) Cr: 55–59.5 (μg/kg) Se: 11–17 (μg/kg) Mg: 165.07–241.58 (mg/kg) K: 2714.30–3835.15 (mg/kg) Ca: 115.64–178.58 (mg/kg) Fe: 6.61–9.12 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.26–37.61 (mg/kg) Cr: 32.33–92.93 (μg/kg) Cu: 878.84–1887.11 (μg/kg) Mg: 113.19–148.32 (mg/kg) K: 2149.91–2266.55 (mg/kg) Ca: 190.81–506.11 (mg/kg) Fe: 5.10–8.31 (mg/kg) Zn: 12.19–23.45 (mg/kg) Cr: 25.56–65.11 (μg/kg) Cu: 810.49–1390.78 (μg/kg) Fe: 19.2 (mg/kg) Zinc: 57 (mg/kg) Fe: 30.8 (mg/kg) Zinc: 68.4 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.5 (mg/kg) Zinc: 9 (mg/kg) Cu: 81 (μg/kg) Fe: 1071 (μg/kg) Cr: 87.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 73 (μg/kg) Se: 39 (μg/kg) Zn: 490 (μg/kg) Cu: 84 (μg/kg) Fe: 1276.6 (μg/kg) Cr: 88 (μg/kg) Mn: 57 (μg/kg) Se: 16 (μg/kg) Zn: 450 (μg/kg) Cu: 88.3 (μg/kg) Fe: 1564 (μg/kg) Cr: 95.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 100 (μg/kg) Se: 18 (μg/kg) Zn: 600 (μg/kg) Cu: 100.1 (μg/kg) Fe: 1362 (μg/kg) Cr: 89 (μg/kg) Mn: 66 (μg/kg) Se: 46 (μg/kg) Zn: 1590 (μg/kg) Na: 47 mg P : 199 mg Fe: 0.85 mg Zn: 1.93 mg Na: 662 mg P : 144 mg Fe: 0.41 mg Zn: 1.18 mg Fe: 13.9–36.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 7–22.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 31.6 (mg/kg) Zn: 28.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 32.8 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.6 (mg/kg) Ca: 136.45–400 (mg/kg) K: 610–5800 (mg/kg) Mg: 40–410 (mg/kg) Fe: 3–197 (mg/kg) Zn: 5–29.77 (mg/kg) Cu: 977–2360 (μg/kg) Cr: 20–100 (μg/kg) Ca: 100–182 (mg/kg) K: 2475–2749 (mg/kg) Mg: 171–296.5 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.8–12.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 9.8–27.3 (mg/kg) Cu: 300–1602 (μg/kg) Cr: 55–59.5 (μg/kg) Se: 11–17 (μg/kg) Mg: 165.07–241.58 (mg/kg) K: 2714.30–3835.15 (mg/kg) Ca: 115.64–178.58 (mg/kg) Fe: 6.61–9.12 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.26–37.61 (mg/kg) Cr: 32.33–92.93 (μg/kg) Cu: 878.84–1887.11 (μg/kg) Mg: 113.19–148.32 (mg/kg) K: 2149.91–2266.55 (mg/kg) Ca: 190.81–506.11 (mg/kg) Fe: 5.10–8.31 (mg/kg) Zn: 12.19–23.45 (mg/kg) Cr: 25.56–65.11 (μg/kg) Cu: 810.49–1390.78 (μg/kg) Fe: 19.2 (mg/kg) Zinc: 57 (mg/kg) Fe: 30.8 (mg/kg) Zinc: 68.4 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.5 (mg/kg) Zinc: 9 (mg/kg) Cu: 81 (μg/kg) Fe: 1071 (μg/kg) Cr: 87.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 73 (μg/kg) Se: 39 (μg/kg) Zn: 490 (μg/kg) Cu: 84 (μg/kg) Fe: 1276.6 (μg/kg) Cr: 88 (μg/kg) Mn: 57 (μg/kg) Se: 16 (μg/kg) Zn: 450 (μg/kg) Cu: 88.3 (μg/kg) Fe: 1564 (μg/kg) Cr: 95.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 100 (μg/kg) Se: 18 (μg/kg) Zn: 600 (μg/kg) Cu: 100.1 (μg/kg) Fe: 1362 (μg/kg) Cr: 89 (μg/kg) Mn: 66 (μg/kg) Se: 46 (μg/kg) Zn: 1590 (μg/kg) Tinned corned beef, meatballs, French polony, chicken polony, red viennas, and chicken viennas from South Africa. Comprise several traditional European meat products. Pork meat, pork fat, salt, garlic, spices in various proportions. Manufactured with the use of food additives and modern production technologies. Meat products and mineral compositions Na: 47 mg P : 199 mg Fe: 0.85 mg Zn: 1.93 mg Na: 662 mg P : 144 mg Fe: 0.41 mg Zn: 1.18 mg Fe: 13.9–36.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 7–22.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 31.6 (mg/kg) Zn: 28.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 32.8 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.6 (mg/kg) Ca: 136.45–400 (mg/kg) K: 610–5800 (mg/kg) Mg: 40–410 (mg/kg) Fe: 3–197 (mg/kg) Zn: 5–29.77 (mg/kg) Cu: 977–2360 (μg/kg) Cr: 20–100 (μg/kg) Ca: 100–182 (mg/kg) K: 2475–2749 (mg/kg) Mg: 171–296.5 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.8–12.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 9.8–27.3 (mg/kg) Cu: 300–1602 (μg/kg) Cr: 55–59.5 (μg/kg) Se: 11–17 (μg/kg) Mg: 165.07–241.58 (mg/kg) K: 2714.30–3835.15 (mg/kg) Ca: 115.64–178.58 (mg/kg) Fe: 6.61–9.12 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.26–37.61 (mg/kg) Cr: 32.33–92.93 (μg/kg) Cu: 878.84–1887.11 (μg/kg) Mg: 113.19–148.32 (mg/kg) K: 2149.91–2266.55 (mg/kg) Ca: 190.81–506.11 (mg/kg) Fe: 5.10–8.31 (mg/kg) Zn: 12.19–23.45 (mg/kg) Cr: 25.56–65.11 (μg/kg) Cu: 810.49–1390.78 (μg/kg) Fe: 19.2 (mg/kg) Zinc: 57 (mg/kg) Fe: 30.8 (mg/kg) Zinc: 68.4 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.5 (mg/kg) Zinc: 9 (mg/kg) Cu: 81 (μg/kg) Fe: 1071 (μg/kg) Cr: 87.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 73 (μg/kg) Se: 39 (μg/kg) Zn: 490 (μg/kg) Cu: 84 (μg/kg) Fe: 1276.6 (μg/kg) Cr: 88 (μg/kg) Mn: 57 (μg/kg) Se: 16 (μg/kg) Zn: 450 (μg/kg) Cu: 88.3 (μg/kg) Fe: 1564 (μg/kg) Cr: 95.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 100 (μg/kg) Se: 18 (μg/kg) Zn: 600 (μg/kg) Cu: 100.1 (μg/kg) Fe: 1362 (μg/kg) Cr: 89 (μg/kg) Mn: 66 (μg/kg) Se: 46 (μg/kg) Zn: 1590 (μg/kg) Na: 47 mg P : 199 mg Fe: 0.85 mg Zn: 1.93 mg Na: 662 mg P : 144 mg Fe: 0.41 mg Zn: 1.18 mg Fe: 13.9–36.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 7–22.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 31.6 (mg/kg) Zn: 28.6 (mg/kg) Fe: 32.8 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.6 (mg/kg) Ca: 136.45–400 (mg/kg) K: 610–5800 (mg/kg) Mg: 40–410 (mg/kg) Fe: 3–197 (mg/kg) Zn: 5–29.77 (mg/kg) Cu: 977–2360 (μg/kg) Cr: 20–100 (μg/kg) Ca: 100–182 (mg/kg) K: 2475–2749 (mg/kg) Mg: 171–296.5 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.8–12.1 (mg/kg) Zn: 9.8–27.3 (mg/kg) Cu: 300–1602 (μg/kg) Cr: 55–59.5 (μg/kg) Se: 11–17 (μg/kg) Mg: 165.07–241.58 (mg/kg) K: 2714.30–3835.15 (mg/kg) Ca: 115.64–178.58 (mg/kg) Fe: 6.61–9.12 (mg/kg) Zn: 24.26–37.61 (mg/kg) Cr: 32.33–92.93 (μg/kg) Cu: 878.84–1887.11 (μg/kg) Mg: 113.19–148.32 (mg/kg) K: 2149.91–2266.55 (mg/kg) Ca: 190.81–506.11 (mg/kg) Fe: 5.10–8.31 (mg/kg) Zn: 12.19–23.45 (mg/kg) Cr: 25.56–65.11 (μg/kg) Cu: 810.49–1390.78 (μg/kg) Fe: 19.2 (mg/kg) Zinc: 57 (mg/kg) Fe: 30.8 (mg/kg) Zinc: 68.4 (mg/kg) Fe: 4.5 (mg/kg) Zinc: 9 (mg/kg) Cu: 81 (μg/kg) Fe: 1071 (μg/kg) Cr: 87.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 73 (μg/kg) Se: 39 (μg/kg) Zn: 490 (μg/kg) Cu: 84 (μg/kg) Fe: 1276.6 (μg/kg) Cr: 88 (μg/kg) Mn: 57 (μg/kg) Se: 16 (μg/kg) Zn: 450 (μg/kg) Cu: 88.3 (μg/kg) Fe: 1564 (μg/kg) Cr: 95.1 (μg/kg) Mn: 100 (μg/kg) Se: 18 (μg/kg) Zn: 600 (μg/kg) Cu: 100.1 (μg/kg) Fe: 1362 (μg/kg) Cr: 89 (μg/kg) Mn: 66 (μg/kg) Se: 46 (μg/kg) Zn: 1590 (μg/kg) Tinned corned beef, meatballs, French polony, chicken polony, red viennas, and chicken viennas from South Africa. Comprise several traditional European meat products. Pork meat, pork fat, salt, garlic, spices in various proportions. Manufactured with the use of food additives and modern production technologies. Sausage making is a greater than 5000-year-old tradition and is enjoyed globally in various forms, including but not limited to German bratwurst, Cajun Andouille, breakfast patties, and frankfurters. Sausage is a blend of ground, minced, or chopped meat, fat, and seasonings, either stuffed into a casing or formed into patties and then cooked, cured, or smoked prior to consumption. The base of most sausages is high-quality muscle protein, traditionally from pork but also from beef, chicken, turkey, or lamb. The meat is ground and blended with 15% to 30% fat, which contributes to juiciness and flavor. Lipid sources may include lard, beef tallow, poultry fat, or plant-based oils. Sausages may be fresh (raw and cooked before consumption), fully cooked, or dry/fermented (shelf-stable by acidification and dehydration). The digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) of sausages are comparable to fresh meat (Fanelli et al., 2024). Deli meats are fully cooked and often cured whole-muscle, chunked and formed, or sectioned and formed meat products that are defined as “A ready-to-eat meat or poultry product that typically is sliced, either in the meat plant, foodservice, or grocery store, and typically assembled in a sandwich for consumption.” in accordance with 9 CFR 430.1. While similar to sausage in some respects, their production includes injection and/or tumbling to deliver an even distribution of the ingredients without comminution. Common examples include sliced ham, roast beef, and turkey breast. While historically derived from European charcuterie traditions, modern deli meats are produced with scientific control to ensure quality, safety, consistency, and nutrition. Deli meats retain DIAAS above 100%, similar to unprocessed lean meats. Production typically starts with whole-muscle meats or smaller pieces of meat, which are injected and/or tumbled with a curing brine containing salt, sodium nitrite (if cured), phosphates, and flavorings. Tumbling ensures uniform distribution and extraction of functional proteins. The product is then heat-processed to an internal temperature ≥ 145 °F to 165 °F, depending on the species, ensuring pathogen inactivation, and subsequently chilled, sliced, and packaged. Dry-cured hams are artisanal products that are preserved by salting, curing, and air-drying. Examples include Italian prosciutto di Parma, Spanish jamón ibérico, and US country hams, all with DIAAS >100%. Prosciutto crudo and jamón ibérico deliver highly digestible, complete amino acids, while also providing zinc, iron, and B vitamins. Like most processed meat products, fat in jamón ibérico is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (up to 55% oleic acid), offering a favorable lipid profile similar to olive oil. Despite being high in salt, dry-cured pork is typically consumed in small, flavor-rich servings or with some form of preparation that removes salt before or during cooking, thus limiting sodium consumption. The transformation from green ham to final product relies on endogenous enzymatic activity, time, and environmental control. Processing begins with rubbing the lean portion of whole hams with salt and nitrate/nitrite and storing the hams under refrigeration conditions for 6 to 8 weeks, which is referred to as the winter season. This is followed by equalization (Spring) and aging under controlled humidity and temperature for months to years (Summer). Natural enzymes and microflora break down proteins and fats over time, developing flavors, umami taste, and desirable texture. Salt solubilizes myofibrillar proteins, forming a heat-stable matrix that binds water and fat. Salt addition during the grinding and/or mixing of meat provides negative charges from the chloride ions that extract myofibrillar proteins and disrupts ionic bonds in myofibrillar proteins, allowing for greater solubilization and mixing of other ingredients. This is critical for emulsion stability and the texture of emulsified sausages like frankfurters or bologna. In deli meats, salt is used to solubilize protein, enhance flavor, and inhibit microbial growth. During mechanical tumbling or massaging, salt disrupts ionic bonds in myofibrillar proteins—primarily actomyosin, myosin and actin—allowing them to solubilize and form a protein matrix upon heating. This matrix retains moisture and improves sliceability. Additionally, salt has antimicrobial effects, reduces water activity (aw), and contributes to taste and flavor. Sodium chloride is commonly added such that there is 1% to 2% salt in finished sausages and deli meats. In specialty products such as dry-cured ham, salt is applied (first week and second week) and penetrates the muscle over 6 to 8 weeks of refrigerated storage, initiating osmosis-driven dehydration to an Aw of ∼0.88 or lower, during which microbial growth is halted, proteins are denatured, and a unique flavor profile is developed. Although salt is the only ingredient required for curing, sodium nitrite and nitrate are often referred to as curing salts and have historically been added to processed meats to inhibit Clostridium botulinum growth, while also fixing the characteristic cured flavor and pink color (nitrosyl hemochrome) of cooked, cured sausages. Sodium nitrite also functions as an antioxidant. Usage rates of nitrite and nitrate are listed in 21 CFR 172.175, 21 CFR. 172.170, and 9 CFR 424.21, with legal limits contingent upon the type of product, and erythorbate being included to prevent nitrosamine formation. For example, hams cooked sausage, and bacon have legal usage rates of 200, 156, and 120 ppm, respectively. Clean-label formulations use vegetable-derived nitrite sources such as celery powder. In dry-cured ham, sodium nitrite and nitrate are optional (9 CFR 319.106, 9 CFR 424.21) but can be used to help stabilize the pinkish color early in the curing process, especially in longer-aged hams. Over time, these compounds degrade, becoming undetectable in the final product. Monosodium phosphate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate, and sodium hexametaphosphate are used to improve tenderness, increase yield, and increase protein extraction. Phosphates increase pH and enhance ionic strength, thereby improving water-holding capacity (WHC). This allows muscle fibers to retain water during thermal processing. Phosphates also dissociate actomyosin complexes, exposing more protein surface area to bind water and salt. Legal limits (9 CFR 424.21) permit up to 0.5% in the final product, although formulations typically use ∼0.2% to 0.4% due to a soapy flavor that is perceived as the concentration approaches 0.5%. These ingredients are integral to cultural and product identity which varies widely by origin—for example, black pepper, paprika, garlic, fennel, sage, black pepper, onion powder, and ginger. They enhance products’ sensory attributes and allow for a great degree of customization. In rare cases, fine particles of seasonings contribute to stabilizing emulsions. European dry-cured hams rarely use but US country hams may include a or to and flavor. and other are added to curing to enhance and the are they increase water-holding During thermal help and and with amino A combination of and contributes to a texture and control. 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