Transitioning telecommunications networks to sustainable energy: A techno-economic analysis for solar-powered 5G base stations across Europe

Driven by the rapid rollout, densification of 5G networks, rising operational costs and carbon-reduction commitments, telecommunications operators and policymakers face a critical need for sustainable energy strategies. This paper presents a Europe-wide techno-economic and environmental assessment of retrofitting 5G base stations, focusing on the macro-cell capacity-layer context up to 3.5 GHz, with grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems including battery storage. Using a techno-economic bottom-up model fed with real irradiance and load profiles, a 20-year discounted cash-flow (DCF) analysis is performed. Country-specific area/land characteristics, as well as capital, operating and land-lease costs are considered to determine Net Present Value (NPV), whereas secondary Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) results are used to quantify emission savings. Results show that rural sites are almost universally NPV-positive, whereas urban installations yield strong returns only in high-irradiance and high electricity price markets, while remaining marginally positive elsewhere. Sensitivity analysis highlights electricity prices and land-lease costs as primary drivers. A modest electricity price trend close or above inflation and/or reuse of 30–70% of existing site area if available can render borderline markets profitable. Batteries typically reduce PV's operational CO 2 savings by 42% on average and add limited NPV gains, suggesting storage should be approached cautiously until further efficiency and cost improvements emerge. Under profit-maximizing deployment, PV reduces national emissions by <0.7%, while an emissions-first expansion can roughly double that impact. We classify countries into “Invest Now,” “Invest Selectively,” and “Incentivize or Wait” groups, and propose a framework that aligns financial viability with carbon-reduction targets, offering screening-level indications and first-order guidance for telecom operators, tower companies, policymakers and regulators. The proposed framework sets the basis for more granular, operator- and site-specific assessments of sustainable radio-node investments given realistic cost, load, lease, and operational inputs tailored to actual network portfolios.