Gendered dimensions of climate-induced disasters: Unequal burdens and non-economic losses in the lesser Himalaya, Nepal

Climate-induced disasters in mountain regions are socially produced outcomes shaped by structural inequalities. This study examines disaster vulnerability in Bajhang District, Nepal, by combining quantitative analysis of rainfall patterns and hazard records (1983–2024) with qualitative fieldwork (2025). It investigates the relationship between hydroclimatic variability and disaster occurrence, how gender, caste and male out-migration shape differentiated vulnerability, and the implications of non-economic losses for equitable climate adaptation. Flash floods and landslides coincided with wetter-than-normal monsoon months (June–September), causing fatalities and infrastructure damage. Long-term hydroclimatic analysis showed that increasing rainfall variability and more intense precipitation, rather than declining annual rainfall, were associated with rising disaster occurrence. Socio-spatial mapping involving 284 participants revealed that climate hazards overlap with critical livelihood resources, creating cascading impacts on agriculture, water resources and rural infrastructure. Disaster exposure was mediated by social inequalities, with women's resource collection routes intersecting landslide-prone areas and Dalit households facing exclusion from land ownership, irrigation institutions and disaster relief. Male-selective out-migration has accelerated the feminisation of agriculture, increasing women's workloads without corresponding decision-making authority. Participants also reported anxiety, disrupted livelihoods and declining wellbeing, highlighting non-economic losses. These findings demonstrate that transformative adaptation must address intersecting social inequalities alongside physical hazard reduction.