Connected, Cooperative and Automated Driving: Stepping away from dynamic function allocation towards human-machine collaboration

Implementing the concept of Connected, Cooperative and Automated Driving (CCAD) has many potential societal and individual benefits. However, to do so successfully fundamental challenges need to be tackled, one being the integration of automation and the human driver. The decisive problems with safety surrounding this topic are well-known, in particular when the human is expected to intervene in situations that the automation is unable to handle. Here we argue that the leading human-machine interaction paradigm for automated driving was and continues to be dynamic function allocation and adaptive automation and that this gave rise to many of the issues currently seen in CCAD. As an alternative, we propose the concept of collaboration which has been discussed in other domains. We believe it may in the future allow tackling the issues associated with the integration of CCAD and the human.