The increasing penetration of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) has highlighted the importance of coordinating ubiquitous distributed energy resources (DERs) via the internet of things (IoT). With the help of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, PEVs can be aggregated to behave as a storage system, yielding both economic and environmental benefits. In this paper, we propose an optimal bidding framework for a V2G-enabled regional energy internet (REI) to participate in day-ahead markets considering carbon trading. The REI operator aims to maximize the net profits from day-ahead markets while anticipating realtime adjustments. A detailed battery model is developed to depict the charging and discharging capability of V2G-enabled PEVs. A two-stage stochastic optimization model is formulated to schedule the operation of PEV fleets against various sources of uncertainties, e.g., the arrival and departure time of PEVs, solar power and real-time prices. Case studies undertaken based on realistic datasets demonstrate that the coordination of the V2G-enabled PEVs and other DERs can facilitate the accommodation of renewable energy, thus improving the REI's revenues in energy and carbon markets.
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A 2020 study studied this question.