Livestock as models for developmental programming

“Developmental programming” is the concept that “developmental insults” during fetal life or infancy, including poor nutrition, poor health care and sickness, and a wide array of additional insults including environmental and social stress, have long-term consequences for the health and productivity of the offspring and has been well established in the last 30 yr. Animal models including various livestock models have proven particularly useful in determining the underlying mechanisms that lead to developmental programming and, in addition, have indicated that developmental programming has important consequences for livestock production. Because of the long-term consequences for lifetime health and productivity, developmental programming has emerged as a major health issue for humans, livestock, and other managed and wild animals.