3D reconstruction and material analysis of Neolithic wattle-and-daub houses at Fenghuangzui site in China

Wattle-and-daub houses emerged in the middle Yangtze River valley between 6000 and 5000 BCE, serving as the dominant form of housing for about 4000 years. Unfortunately, their susceptibility to soil erosion, weathering, and insect damage has left few surviving examples. We present a comprehensive analysis of wattle-and-daub houses, plastered white on walls and/or floors, from the Upper Qujialing-Shijiahe period (3300–2200 BCE) at the Fenghuangzui site in China. Through three-dimensional reconstruction based on red-burnt clay chunks and wood imprints, we proposed the general construction sequence and illustrated how intentional firing enhanced the durability of these dwellings. Initial scientific characterization of white-surfaced plaster (bai hui mian) fragments using XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS, Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR indicates the potential use of a gel-like calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) binder. This study provides new insights into architectural practices, technological innovations, and social organization at Neolithic walled towns in the middle Yangtze River valley.