The authors tested control theory using protective effects of personal and social assets and risk effects of personal deficits on deviant behaviors of drug use, delinquency, truancy, and weapons possession. Structural equations modeling was used to analyze data from a population of students in grades 6 through 12 in Colorado (N = 13,207). Second-order factors of assets and deficits explained deviant behavior. Findings were consistent for subgroups of young men and women in both middle school and high school.
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Dukes et al. (2001) studied this question.
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