Executive Functions in 5- to 8-Year Olds: Developmental Changes and Relationship to Academic Achievement

Pronounced improvements in executive functions (EF) during preschool years have been documented incross-sectional studies. However, longitudinal evidence on EF development during the transition to school andpredictive associations between early EF and later school achievement are still scarce. This study examineddevelopmental changes in EF across three time-points, the predictive value of EF for mathematical, reading andspelling skills and explored children’s specific academic attainment as a function of early EF. Participants were323 children following regular education; 160 children were enrolled in prekindergarten (younger cohort: 69months) and 163 children in kindergarten (older cohort: 78.4 months) at the first assessment. Various tasks of EFwere administered three times with an interval of one year each. Mathematical, reading and spelling skills weremeasured at the last assessment. Individual background characteristics such as vocabulary, non-verbalintelligence and socioeconomic status were included as control variables. In both cohorts, changes in EF weresubstantial; improvements in EF, however, were larger in preschoolers than school-aged children. EF assessed inpreschool accounted for substantial variability in mathematical, reading and spelling achievement two years later,with low EF being especially associated with significant academic disadvantages in early school years. Giventhat EF continue to develop from preschool into primary school years and that starting with low EF is associatedwith lower school achievement, EF may be considered as a marker or risk for academic disabilities.