Invisible and exploited: Migrant children and the risks of child labor in oil palm smallholder farming in Sabah, Malaysia

Child labor in Malaysia’s agricultural sector presents a critical yet understudied subject, particularly in oil palm smallholder farming in Sabah, where the involvement of migrant children in daily farming activities is often normalized. Child labor is considered a serious violation of human rights. However, the lived realities of migrant children and their families in Sabah are marked by unregulated routines, social invisibility, and a precarious future. Methodologically, we employed both a PhotoVoice method, involving 10 migrant children expressing their voices creatively via visual art, and 14 semistructured interviews with a range of informants, including smallholders, workers, and other relevant stakeholders. This study reveals that although not all migrant children are in child labor conditions, the presence of harmful, hazardous, and exploitative elements endured by some suggests a textbook example of child labor. Notably, the complex intersection of socio-economic and cultural realities confronting migrant children in Sabah continues to shape their involvement in oil palm activities both invisible and exploitative. As one of the earliest studies to center migrant children’s narratives through PhotoVoice in Sabah, we contribute to the evolving approach in qualitative research, especially involving vulnerable populations by treating migrant children as active knowledge producers.