Mapping the spectrum of health denialism on Polish-language websites: a qualitative analysis

Background Health-related denialist content is increasingly visible in Poland’s online information environment, amid the rapid growth and fragmentation of digital platforms. Existing research has focused mainly on denialism related to COVID-19 and vaccination. Evidence remains limited on how health denialism is produced and sustained online beyond a single crisis topic, and on how distinct forms of denial coexist within the same ecosystem. This study aimed to identify and describe the plural character of health denialism expressed on Polish websites. We examined the interpretive frameworks promoted by health denialists and the main forms of negation used to challenge established knowledge in health and medical sciences. Methods We conducted a qualitative content analysis of 35 purposively selected Polish-language websites run by individuals who present skeptical positions toward mainstream medical and public health science. The website corpus was finalized and captured in March 2025, and qualitative coding and analysis were conducted between June and July 2025. Materials were coded in MAXQDA 24 by two independent researchers from different academic disciplines, supporting an interdisciplinary interpretation of narratives, claims, and argumentative strategies. Results Across the 35 websites, we identified seven conspiracy-themed interpretive frameworks and six recurring types of denial, with COVID-19 pandemic denial and generalized rejection of vaccination emerging as the most frequent patterns. The analysis indicated that these websites operate as hubs for heterogeneous denialist narratives rather than a single, coherent worldview. Some content showed recognizable conspiracy-oriented patterns, although the discourse was internally diverse. Denial targeted multiple health-related domains and was not limited to vaccination. Conclusions These findings extend the evidence base on online health denialism as a complex, multi-topic phenomenon and inform practical recommendations for response strategies relevant to health system decision makers, clinicians, and professionals engaged in monitoring and countering medical denialism.