Adventure tourism and local livelihoods

Whether fixed-site infrastructure or self-contained mobile tours contribute more to local livelihoods is contentious in both terrestrial and marine outdoor tourism sectors worldwide. Examples include: mobile hunting or photo safaris cf. game lodges in Africa; mobile tours cf. fixed hotels in large national parks worldwide; and mobile travesias cf. fixed luxury lodges in South America (Buckley, 2012; Explora, 2014). Comparing warm-water live-aboard charter boats with island resorts provides one test. Both can offer diving, sailing, surfing, fishing and sea-kayaking. Accessibility and luxury increase continually for both, to attract cash-rich, time-poor adventure aficionados and partners. There are examples in Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Solomons, and Tanzania (Buckley, 2002, 2006, 2010; O’Brien and Ponting, 2013; Ponting & O’Brien, 2013). Livelihoods include: cash earnings, through local employment; subsistence, affected by environmental impact; and social structures, affected by social impacts.