The Effects of TMS on Animal Models of Depression, β-Adrenergic Receptors, and Brain Monoamines

In initial studies using animal models of depression, we primarily focused on the similarities of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). However, our investigations show that TMS has its own, unique, potentially diagnostic and therapeutic effects, distinct from those of ECT. These effects need further exploration in animal and clinical studies.