Global metallogeny, extraction challenges, and exploration pathways of the critical metal Vanadium

Vanadium (V) is a strategically vital critical metal that plays a crucial role in various applications of modern technology. Its production worldwide is concentrated mainly in China, Russia, South Africa, and Australia. Understanding the metallogenic processes that govern vanadium enrichment in diverse lithologies, and the relationship among its diverse deposit types is critical for developing exploration strategies. Here we provide a comprehensive overview which shows that vanadium enrichment is mainly influenced by its redox sensitivity and its tendency to associate with Fe-Ti oxides, organic matter, clay minerals, and sulfides. These geochemical traits enable vanadium to concentrate in various geological settings, including magmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide complexes, black shale deposits, laterites in weathering profiles, and secondary sources such as steel slags, spent catalysts, red mud, and carbon-rich materials. We combine mineral system concepts with geological, geochemical, mineralogical, structural, and geophysical data which offers a solid framework for identifying both conventional and concealed vanadium resources. The review highlights the importance of understanding vanadium mineralogy, geochemistry, process mineralogy, and advanced extraction techniques to develop effective exploration strategies. This approach aims to maximize resource recovery from both primary and secondary sources while promoting a sustainable and resilient global supply. Unlike previous reviews, this one introduces an integrated mineral systems framework that links geological, geochemical, mineralogical, and structural factors affecting vanadium enrichment in various resources. It identifies key exploration criteria, uncovers new resource opportunities, and sets future research priorities to secure a sustainable vanadium supply and strengthen critical mineral security.