Methods for sexing preimplantation embryos range from karyotyping to recording speed of development in vitro. The only method used routinely on a commercial scale is to biopsy embryos and amplify Y-chromosome-specific DNA using the polymerase chain reaction. This method is effective for more than 90% of embryos and is > 95% accurate. Within males, spermatozoa are essentially identical phenotypically due to:
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GE Seidel (2019) studied this question.
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