Non-conventional slag (NCS), including copper, lead, lithium, nickel, phosphorus, and zinc slags are under-utilised industrial by-products with potential in sustainable construction. This review evaluates their use as partial replacements for cement and aggregates, focusing on performance and mechanisms. NCS behaviour varies with composition and activation, with some enhancing strength and durability. Most importantly, NCS supports waste valorisation, reduced material consumption, and more sustainable concrete development.
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Yong et al. (2026) studied this question.
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