Methods for examining immune and skin microbiome associations with dermatomycoses in reptiles: a review

The skin microbiome plays a significant role in immune defense during fungal skin infections, or dermatomycoses, which are increasingly impacting reptiles worldwide. Most dermatomycoses, or emerging fungal disease (EFDs) in reptiles have been linked to fungi in the order Onygenales and include Ophidiomyces ophidiicola infections (ophidiomycosis) in snakes, Nannizziopsis infections in lizards, and Emydomyces testovorans infections in turtles. Research examining either skin microbiome or immune function individually with respect to Onygenales-caused dermatomycoses in reptiles is becoming increasingly prevalent. However, there is a paucity of research investigating both immune and skin microbiome changes together. To set the stage for future integrative studies, we review current research on skin microbial associations, immunological responses, and dermatomycoses in reptiles, including research diagnosing and detecting dermatomycoses. We briefly present known dermatomycoses in reptiles, discuss techniques used to diagnose and detect dermatomycoses, and describe skin microbiome and immune function dynamics associated with identified dermatomycoses. We additionally provide suggestions for future research integrating immune and skin microbiome analysis with emerging diseases.