What does this research mean for the field?

In multilingual speakers, the second language (L2) phonological system is less stable than the first (L1) and third (L3) languages, exhibiting significant cross-linguistic influence from both L1 and L3, particularly in the production of voiced stops. Novelty: ClaimNovelty.INCREMENTAL. Consensus alignment: ConsensusAlignment.NEUTRAL.

What question did this study set out to answer?

To examine whether trilingual speakers maintain distinct phonological categories across languages and determine which voicing series and places of articulation are most vulnerable to cross-linguistic interference.

September 2, 2026LanguagesOpen Access

Is L2 the Least Stable System? The Dynamics of VOT Trilingual Production in Polish–English–Norwegian Read and Spontaneous Speech

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Authors

ZCZuzanna CalAdam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

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Implication

Acoustic analysis uncovers substantial first- and third-language interference on second-language stop consonants in trilinguals, indicating that second-language phonology is the least stable.

Key Points

To examine whether trilingual speakers maintain distinct phonological categories across languages and determine which voicing series and places of articulation are most vulnerable to cross-linguistic interference.
Analyzed the production of voiced and voiceless plosives (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) in both read and spontaneous speech across L1 Polish, L2 English, and L3 Norwegian learners alongside native control speakers.
Assessed acoustic voice onset time data alongside extralinguistic variables including proficiency, language exposure, usage frequency, and age of acquisition.
Multilingual speakers exhibited significant cross-linguistic influence from both L1 and L3 on their L2 stop consonant production.
Phonetic interference was most pronounced in the voiced stop series, whereas L1 and L3 productions remained substantially more target-like.

Cite This Study

Zuzanna Cal (2026) studied this question.

synapsesocial.com/papers/6a97e29ec562ede874ec6dce https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11090182

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Implication

Acoustic analysis uncovers substantial first- and third-language interference on second-language stop consonants in trilinguals, indicating that second-language phonology is the least stable.

Is L2 the Least Stable System? The Dynamics of VOT Trilingual Production in Polish–English–Norwegian Read and Spontaneous Speech

Discussion

Member takes

Implication

Key Points

Cite This Study

Is L2 the Least Stable System? The Dynamics of VOT Trilingual Production in Polish–English–Norwegian Read and Spontaneous Speech

Discussion

Member takes

Implication

Key Points

Cite This Study

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