Green-synthesized Ag/Ag3O4/CuO from Inula viscosa coupled with peroxydisulfate for Safranin O degradation: modeling and optimization using DT_LSBOOST and dragonfly algorithm

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The growing environmental pollution caused by organic contaminants and the limitations of conventional treatment methods have made the development of sustainable degradation strategies increasingly urgent. This study proposes a green synthesis as an eco-friendly alternative to the traditional solvent-based preparation of photocatalysts. Ag/Ag3O4/CuO nanocomposites were successfully synthesized using Inula viscosa leaf extract, a natural reducing and stabilizing agent. Physicochemical analyses confirmed the formation of crystalline heterostructures (50.0–57.6 nm) with band gap energies ranging from 1.76 to 2.81 eV. The AAC-4 sample, containing 30% silver, achieved 99.3% degradation of Safranin O dye within 100 min under visible light and in the presence of 10 mM potassium persulfate (PDS). The synthesized catalyst maintained good efficiency over five reuse cycles. Machine learning (DT_LSBOOST) accurately predicted the degradation results (R = 0.9981, RMSE = 0.1116), and the dragonfly algorithm identified optimal conditions with only a 0.34% deviation from experimental data. These results highlight the synergistic effect of green nanomaterials and artificial intelligence for cost-effective and eco-friendly wastewater treatment.