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Regional assessment reveals persistent traditional water utilization alongside public systems in rural households, highlighting the enduring role of local topography and community networks.
This study categorizes the target area into six regions based on topographical and infrastructural characteristics. Findings reveal a diverse water-use landscape—utilizing springs, groundwater, and rainwater—manifested through communal water facilities, wells, and small-scale water supply systems. Historically, these served as essential infrastructure; notably, wells supported over half of all households before modern systems were introduced. While public water supply systems have led to an overall decline, approximately one-quarter of households maintain these traditional practices. Consequently, diverse water-resource systems rooted in local topography and social relations continue to coexist alongside modern infrastructure today.
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Suginaka et al. (2026) studied this question.
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