Prediction of geologic boundaries ahead of the tunnel face is of major importance for safe and economic tunneling, especially in Japan’s complex geology. The Japanese Islands are on an active tectonic boundary and subduction zones that contain 86 active volcanoes and more than 2000 active faults. Consequently, many weak, fractured, and faulted zones are encountered when excavating long-spanned tunnels in Japan.
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Inazaki et al. (1999) studied this question.