Extraction of glucosinolates from Raphani semen using natural green deep eutectic solvents combined with ultrasound-assisted techniques: process optimization, component analysis, and antibacterial activity evaluation

In this study, developed an efficient and environmentally friendly method for selectively extracting glucosinolates (GLS) from Raphani semen ( R. semen ) by integrating ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) with natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES). The extraction efficiency of 19 different NADES for GLS in R . semen under ultrasonic conditions was investigated, and it was found that betaine-levulinic acid exhibited outstanding dissolution performance. The extraction process was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimal conditions, the GLS yield reached 93.86 mg/g, outperforming traditional solvents. Meanwhile, nine GLS compounds were identified using UHPLC-Q-TOF MS, and the interaction of the most abundant GLS with the solvent was simulated using molecular dynamics (MD). The extract exhibited significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus ( S . aureus ) and Escherichia coli ( E . coli ). Additionally, the combination of the extract with ampicillin sodium demonstrated excellent additive and synergistic effects against E . coli and S . aureus , respectively. More importantly, compared to antibiotics, the extract has a reduced tendency to develop resistance. Overall, this promising and low-cost extraction technology provides a new strategy for further exploration of potential novel antimicrobial agents or adjuvants to combat bacterial infections. • 19 Different green NADES used for extracting glucosinolates from R.semen. • Using RSM to optimize the main factors affecting NADES-UAE. • GLS yield was 93.86 mg/g under optimal extraction conditions. • GLS exhibit excellent antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. • The study explains the possible antibacterial mechanism.