Domestic and imported embodied energy in grain consumption across countries at different income levels using multiregional input output analysis

Despite growing interest in the food–energy nexus, limited attention has been paid to how the embodied energy intensity of grain consumption differs between domestically supplied and imported grain. This study employs a multi-regional input–output framework, combining the 2017 GTAP database with FAOSTAT food-balance data, to estimate grain-consumption energy intensity in 30 high-income and 30 low-income countries. Energy intensity is decomposed into six origin-specific components: domestic direct, domestic indirect, domestic transport, import direct, import indirect, and import transport energy. The results reveal marked differences in both the level and composition of energy intensity across income groups. High-income countries exhibit an average grain-consumption energy intensity of 1.27 TJ per 1,000 tons, compared with 0.64 TJ per 1,000 tons in low-income countries. Domestic direct and indirect energy components are generally larger in high-income countries, consistent with their greater reliance on mechanized and industrial-input-based production systems. By contrast, imported grain accounts for a relatively important share of embodied energy in many low-income countries. Transport-related energy represents 10.9% of total grain-consumption energy intensity in low-income countries, compared with 3.6% in high-income countries. The findings show that international trade does not uniformly increase national energy intensity. Its effect depends jointly on the import share, the difference between imported and domestic energy intensity, supplier-country production structures, and transport-related energy requirements. The origin-specific decomposition therefore provides a more precise basis for identifying whether national grain energy exposure arises primarily from domestic production, foreign production, or transportation. These results highlight the need for differentiated agricultural, sourcing, and logistics policies rather than uniform strategies based solely on import dependence or grain self-sufficiency.