Vertebrate – hypogeous fungi interactions in forest ecosystems

Hypogeous fungi constitute a polyphyletic and ecologically significant group of organisms that play essential roles in forest ecosystem functioning. Their sporocarps develop beneath the soil surface, and their biology is shaped by a concealed lifestyle, seasonal fruiting, and strong dependence on biotic and abiotic factors. These fungi occur across diverse habitats and represent several taxonomic lineages, yet they share convergent adaptations to the subterranean environment, including globose sporocarps, enclosed hymenia, and the production of volatile compounds that attract animals. A defining feature of hypogeous fungi is their reliance on animals (primarily mammals and insects) for spore dispersal, as spores are consumed and later excreted intact. Moreover, hypogeous fungi constitute an important dietary component for numerous forest vertebrates. Their sporocarps are rich in proteins, nitrogenous compounds, vitamins, and minerals, making them a valuable and often seasonally stable food resource. Mammals locate sporocarps using volatile cues such as dimethyl sulphide and anandamides. Mycophagy contributes to multiple modes of zoochory, including endozoochory, ectozoochory, synzoochory, and secondary dispersal via predators. Mycophagous strategies vary widely among vertebrate species and can be classified into obligate, preferential, opportunistic, episodic, and indirect forms. These interactions influence nutrient cycling, soil structure, mycorrhizal succession, and forest regeneration. The review highlights the multidimensional ecological roles of hypogeous fungi as mycorrhizal partners, nutrient sources, and drivers of forest ecosystem processes. Understanding vertebrate−fungus interactions is crucial for maintaining forest resilience, biodiversity, and ecosystem stability under increasing anthropogenic pressure.