Recent advances in the determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in soils: implications to the European Soil Monitoring Law

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are increasingly detected in soils as a result of wastewater irrigation, sewage sludge application, manure amendment, and diffuse anthropogenic inputs. Despite growing concerns over their persistence, mobility, toxicity, and role in antimicrobial resistance, systematic soil monitoring of NSAIDs remains limited. This review synthesizes recent advances in analytical methodologies for NSAID determination in soils, evaluates quality control performance, and integrates current knowledge on toxicity and soil property interactions within the regulatory context of the EU Soil Monitoring Law. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and solid-phase extraction (SPE) remain the most widely applied sample preparation techniques, while QuEChERS, pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) represent increasingly adopted greener alternatives. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) dominates targeted analysis, whereas high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has advanced non-target screening by enabling the identification of transformation products and complex contaminant mixtures, particularly in amended soils. Detection limits frequently reach low ng/g levels, although matrix effects and method harmonization remain complex challenges. This review also examines ecotoxicological evidence, highlighting impacts on soil microbial communities, enzymatic activity, nutrient cycling, plants and soil fauna. Moreover, it underscores the critical role of soil properties, including pH, texture, mineralogy, organic matter, moisture, temperature, and biodiversity, in controlling NSAIDs sorption, mobility, transformation, and bioavailability. By bridging analytical chemistry and soil science, this work provides a holistic framework to support policymakers and researchers in implementing effective soil monitoring and risk assessment strategies aligned with the EU objective of achieving healthy soils by 2050.