Prevention Strategies for Cardiovascular Disease in HIV-Infected Patients

E ffective antiretroviral therapy (ART) improves the survival of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.1 With increased life expectancy, HIV-infected patients increasingly are experiencing complications of illnesses that are not directly related to HIV infection.2 Cardiovascular disease (CVD), the leading cause of death in the United States, 3 recently has been recognized as an important cause of morbidity and mortality among patients with HIV (see Working Group 2, Epidemiological Evidence for Cardiovascular Disease in HIV-Infected Patients and Relationship to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy).2,4 -6 Among these patients, traditional CVD risk factors predict CVD events; however, certain components of ART appear to be associated with increased CVD risk.5 Much of the increased CVD risk observed in patients undergoing ART is related primarily to the effects of ART on traditional CVD risk factors; however, direct effects of ART on the vasculature and other inflammatory, immune, and viral factors associated with HIV infection may also contribute to increased CVD risk.5,7,8 A central tenet of preventing CVD is that the intensity of risk-reducing interventions should be based on the level of CVD risk.9 Patients with established CVD are at the highest risk and qualify for the most aggressive risk factor management, with special focus on interventions that have been proven to prevent cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, and stroke.For patients without established CVD, management is based on the presence of risk factors for developing complications of CVD, such as death, myocardial infarction, and stroke 9 -12 (see Working Group 4, Screening and Assessment of Coronary Heart Disease in HIV-Infected Patients).The intensity of CVD risk-reducing therapy, however, must be modified by the context of the patient's overall health.This is an especially important consideration in patients with HIV infection, who often have competing morbidities that may be as likely to lead to death or disability as CVD, such as complications of HIV, substance abuse, liver disease, or malignancy. 2 Also, to achieve the aggressive goals set forth in recent lipid and hypertension guidelines, 10 -12 multidrug therapy frequently is necessary, which places many HIV-infected patients at risk for complications of polypharmacy.With these considerations, efforts to prevent CVD in patients with HIV should focus on improving modifiable risk factors such as cigarette smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and disordered glucose metabolism.The initial choice of ART regimen and subsequent ART modifications also may be considered in planning CVD prevention strategies, with the recognition that maintenance of viral suppression is the primary concern, because the risks of inadequately treated HIV infection outweigh any increase in CVD risk that may be associated with ART, and with the understanding that uncontrolled viral infection may itself contribute to CVD risk.7,13,14 Cigarette SmokingCigarette smoking is highly prevalent among patients with HIV (47% to 71%) and is more prevalent than in the generalThe American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel.Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest.The opinions expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and should not be construed as necessarily representing an official position of the US Department of Health and Human Services, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, or the US government.These opinions are not necessarily those of the editor or the American Heart Association.The Executive Summary is available in the print issue of the journal (Circulation.2008;118:198 -210).