Misinterpretation of character scaling: a tale of sexual dimorphism in body shape of common lizards

Male-biased sexual dimorphism in head, limbs, and tail scaled to snout–vent length has been reported in many lizard species. Consequently, various hypotheses have been proposed to explain observed body-shape dimorphism. According to the majority of them, the proportions of body components are adaptively related to sexual differences in ecology as well as in reproductive behaviour. Our study shows an alternative, much more parsimonious explanation in the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara). According to our analyses, the exaggeration of a single trait, specifically trunk length in females, may explain the whole pattern of sexual differences in body shape. The only consistent adaptive hypothesis, then, is that females with a larger abdominal cavity, and consequently a longer trunk, have a reproductive advantage. Size-adjusted heads, limbs, and tails traditionally reported to be larger in males than in females, features ascribed to numerous evolutionary mechanisms, thus appear to be just an artifact of inappropriate scaling to a sexually dimorphic trait (snout–vent length). As scaling to a single trait has been routinely used in many studies carried out in animals, we warn against quick interpretations based on such analyses and recommend more cautious inspection of allometries.