Vanadium in agroecosystems: Toxicity across the soil-microbe-plant-human continuum

Vanadium (V) is a key element for multiple industrial applications due to its exceptional physicochemical properties. Nevertheless, the extensive utilization of V has raised significant environmental issues, posing substantial risks to ecosystem, particularly through uncontrolled emissions and soil deposition. This review provides a comprehensive overview and thoroughly examines the occurrence, sources, and speciation of V in soil system, with particular emphasis on its complex behavior, mobility and transformation in response to soil pH, redox potential, and organic matter content. Furthermore, the role of microbial processes and the impact of V on plant growth are also discussed in detail. Additionally, potential human health risks associated with dietary and environmental exposure to V are examined. This paper uniquely integrates soil geochemistry, plant-microbe interactions, and human health perspectives to provide a general understanding of V behavior in soil-plant systems. Integrating current advances in V research, this review aims to expand our understanding of its fate in the environment and toxicology and to contribute to guiding future work and the development of long-term effective soil remediation technology.