Microwave assisted fuel effects on the physicochemical and photocatalytic properties of CoFe₂O₄ for hydrogen evolution and removal of oxytetracycline

Cobalt ferrite is a promising magnetic photocatalytic material owing to its tuneable magnetic properties and visible-light-driven photocatalytic activity. In this study, the effects of fuels on the structural, optical, magnetic, and photocatalytic properties of cobalt ferrite were investigated by employing urea and L-arginine as fuel sources. The samples, denoted as CF-U (urea-derived) and CF-L (L-arginine-derived), exhibit distinct physicochemical characteristics arising from differences in fuel decomposition behaviour. BET analyses reveal that CF-U possesses a higher surface area (28.668 m 2 g −1 ) compared to CF-L (11.872 m 2 g −1 ). UV–Vis indicates that both samples absorb in the visible-light region; however, photoluminescence measurements confirm a reduced electron–hole recombination rate for CF-U. Magnetic measurements show enhanced saturation magnetization for CF-U (42 emu g −1 ) relative to CF-L (36 emu g −1 ), attributed to improved crystallinity and cation distribution. Owing to its favourable structural integrity, larger surface area, and superior charge carrier separation, CF-U exhibited enhanced photocatalytic performance for degradation of OTC (70.42%) and H 2 production (11.74 mmol g −1 ) under solar simulated irradiation. These findings highlight the critical role of fuel selection in tailoring the physicochemical properties of cobalt ferrite.