Review of applied surface modifications of pencil graphite electrodes for paracetamol sensing

Electrochemical methods used for analysis and detection of chemical compounds have significant advantages, such as simplicity and speed of work and low limits of detection. Methods of choice include cyclic, adsorptive stripping, differential pulse and square wave voltammetry. From the point of view of health sciences, environmental sciences and pharmaceutical industry, it is important to develop reliable techniques of pharmaceutical compounds determination. Paracetamol, as one of the most frequently prescribed analgesic medications, is widely present in households and environment. Therefore, it is of scientific and practical interest to test possible ways of its determination in order to find the most suitable ones. In order to provide economic means of detection, numerous authors tested pencil graphite electrodes, as widely available and low cost material suitable for surface modifications, and proved that they can be efficiently used to detect very low concentrations, around 10−9 M, of paracetamol.