Assessing multi-hazard climate exposure across mining subsectors: evidence from industrial and artisanal and small-scale mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Climate change risks pose a major challenge for the mining industry, despite its significant contribution to the global energy transition. This study assesses the exposure of mining subsectors to multi-climate hazards, such as extreme heat, drought, and flooding. It develops a spatially weighted composite Climate Exposure Index to compare industrial and artisanal and small-scale mining subsectors in the Democratic Republic of Congo for the period 2000–2024. The study aggregates climate-hazard indicators observed at the provincial level with the spatial distribution of mining subsectors. Results reveal substantial heterogeneity in climate exposure across mining subsectors. Industrial diamond mining exhibits the highest average exposure, followed by gold, artisanal diamond, and the copper-cobalt belt, while tantalum and tungsten mining display the lowest exposure levels. Exposure patterns are therefore primarily driven by the geographic concentration of mining activities in provinces characterized by elevated climate hazards. Furthermore, the comparison between industrial and artisanal systems shows that several industrial subsectors exhibit higher average composite exposure. Sensitivity analyses based on alternative weighting schemes confirm the robustness of the exposure index. The findings demonstrate that climate exposure is unevenly distributed across mining activities and underscore the need for subsector-specific climate adaptation and risk management strategies for the mining sector.