Observational learning

Inconsistencies in the use of terms such as “modelling,” “copying,” “imitation,” and “observational learning” impede progress in studies of natural, behavioural, and cultural selection. Recent evidence suggests distinctions between the effects of observation on: (a) emission of previously acquired repertoires, (b) acquisition of new repertoires, (c) acquisition of conditioned reinforcers, and (d) acquisition of observational learning as a new repertoire. Prior research failed to identify whether changes in behaviour after observation constituted learning because tests were not done for the presence or absence of the repertoires prior to observation. Changing one's queue because of the potential of receiving faster service constitutes a performance task and is quite different from learning a language by observation. We describe new investigations reporting procedures leading to: acquisition of observational learning, acquisition of operants and higher‐order operants by observation, and the acquisition of conditioned reinforcers as a function of observation. The conditioned reinforcement effects after observation are related to the “copying” effects on reversal of sexual selection in some species. An observational effect on performance constitutes a different function from learning new repertoires. Acquiring new reinforcers is still another function. We propose empirically derived distinctions between these that are important in the analyses of the roles of natural selection, behavioural selection, and cultural selection in adaptation, changes in performance, learning, and the spread of cultural practices.