Haiti, Free Soil, and Antislavery in the Revolutionary Atlantic

In the late eighteenth century, the French colony of Saint-Domingue was the richest colony in the world. Set in the Caribbean Sea, a short sail from some of the principal American colonies of Britain and Spain, in the 1780s it produced about half of all the sugar and coffee consumed in Europe and the Americas. It was, in the nomenclature of the time, the “Pearl of the Antilles,” the “Eden of the Western World.” It was there, in late August 1791, that the colony's enslaved rose up, eventually declaring war against the regime of slavery at its seat of most extreme and opulent power. Within a month, the rebel slaves numbered in the tens of thousands, and the property destroyed amounted to more than a thousand sugar and coffee farms. With this event—the largest and best-coordinated slave rebellion the world had ever seen—the enslaved of Saint-Domingue forced the issue of slavery upon the French Revolution and the world. By August 1793, colonial authorities began decreeing abolition, and in February 1794, the National Convention in Paris ended slavery in France's colonies, in a sense ratifying what enslaved rebels had already made real on the ground in many parts of Saint-Domingue. A decade later, those same rebels declared themselves free not only from slavery, but also from French rule. On January 1, 1804, the independent nation of Haiti was proclaimed—the second independent state in the Western Hemisphere, and the only one ever founded by former slaves and without slavery.1 The Haitian Revolution—the name by which we now know these events—commanded the attention of everyone in the region and beyond. But surely few followed the situation as closely as enslaved people, who apprehended that the world's most profitable and powerful system of slavery had been destroyed by its own slaves. Masters, meanwhile, heard about men much like themselves whose lives and fortunes had just been shattered by the actions of enslaved men and women like their own. Authorities in neighboring slave societies responded quickly with measures such as bans on the entry of so-called French blacks, limits on the slave trade, and surveillance of slaves in their own territory. Whatever hopes and fears the Haitian Revolution generated across the Atlantic world, its impact on slave emancipation beyond Haiti's borders was not at all clear. In the French Empire, the emancipation of 1794 had been rescinded, and by the time of Haitian independence in 1804, slavery and the slave trade were thriving again in Guadeloupe and Martinique. While organized and popular opposition to slavery gained momentum in England, perhaps some three-quarters of a million people still lived enslaved in its colonies. In the United States, abolitionism became increasingly popular in the north, but in the south slavery remained entrenched, its advocates bent on expanding it to new American territories. In the Spanish world, meanwhile, the model of plantation slavery pioneered in the French and British Caribbean was gaining ground. In Cuba, in particular, planters strove to supplant Saint-Domingue in the world market, and the rapid expansion of slavery there turned the Spanish island the world's largest of sugar and one of the of in the world. with abolitionism on the at the of Haiti's slavery was still on the The of remained there, and Haiti's and that were to that state of were to emancipation in their but all of that emancipation to of the slave societies that their new of the from slavery in remained we the of this new of in a region the Haitian was colonial slavery also to to the to which the Haitian Revolution the of in the world. the impact of the on and American the in which Haiti was to about the of slavery about the of men and on the of the Haitian of and rebellion and slaves and free people across the In of some the impact of the Haitian Revolution on the the Haiti and Atlantic in a about the of Haiti's was also a about a Haitian state that and its own of in the world, about a Haitian that about and to in the the that the of the Haitian Revolution of of the of we of the of as the enslaved of the region to in Atlantic about and In in which these were the Haitian state that its was a and the Haitian of in the of its the of the Haitian Revolution beyond it the of in the Atlantic world. In that the Haitian state a The it and the it the and of at a in its that in of the by the Haitian In January enslaved men from the on which were and to had from slavery, and to Haitian of the of the of the men to there, by their and British to on of the Haitian of which that and and the of their in the colonies in who to in the as but the of only one of was a one and in and of and eventually were not only the and the of the men in but also Haiti's in to the of slavery and and The and the on which it was the and of and of Haiti's in that Haiti's was a that in many and of these were of and were to of and on of the from to free to a to on the as and the Haitian state to more on the it at its to Haitian its Haiti's in as the themselves to was a of and in of that also about the of and more of Europe and In January enslaved men and from by name as and and as property by one the The men were to on the as in and of the of the there had been slaves on but the had been some time, and some of the slaves had been to to that at the time of the in only the slave and the remained With the on and to at on and the men on a and the and sail the of the time of their there in the by in the and a by in the had to the of the Haitian and were to a Haitian nation in which slavery and again in as a of the and of the the state had in The in The north, which became a in which were by and produced sugar with the of former slaves. In the which was organized as a the had the and the plantation system and of in of to The the were not in the some former in the much of the to the with it was to south that the men that been was to the of the south than those of the north, and and Haiti's to the But there was some as In the north, the and the and to the of people were to Spanish the was not by the meanwhile, at one of the that had heard of and about but also about the by the state and the of and it was with the south that their A few their the followed to that to the and the men as from to a more to the of to with But the was and the the of to the was of Haitian which to the new Haitian which had been to in the of The were to by the of the of the from the on its While the had been as a to the and to in was not in in the The the enslaved the of the new was the time that the new of the was and of the British to had to the was of a made it the British of the to know to in that the men in were But that by of their in the men were now The was slavery in the men slaves. the of their their Haitian the of on property that the men had and the The was to a British as to the British to that the men not as of their with a new of to their the British and on the ground to to the with which to that the men turned to of and the new was and a to trade and to the in to themselves of Haitian which of and the of slaves to with the from the British forced to Haitian the to and not the of British was sense that the new a to trade and much of the in the Caribbean enslaved people, as as the made real in the new were not on the men who made their the of by the of were not to to Haiti's with the in the of their to and to in In was to the also the new as a of who in had that Haitian independence the of a to to the Haitian of and the of which had in the of neighboring colonies. that the new made to the and of the colonies to and themselves in the in the which and a which to the and of those colonies a and of in the slave of the the and in the were by all to that new made Haiti a and people who to on its territory. The not the of it not to to slave in neighboring colonies, that Haitian the Haitian of had of that of Haiti a to the and of and But Haiti as a of and it to Haitian territory. was a and and everyone to it as But what of what was to and the of the new Haitian the of The that the and of such as as in a about slavery and and about Haiti's in and the the While the and of the Haitian state in was it a of more of its most was that by of the and their in made Haitian and In Haiti as free The of free what the of the of it a which to about the Haitian in about slavery, and The in that on a was to upon a In and England, it a to the of a by the of was declared with as as the century, the was in not all slaves who their on it the of free the was not to slaves colonies. and as slavery in the colonial world, limits to the were the of the French of was by a that that all in and to their colonies of the French the National a on 1791, the of which that on the free as French than In the by all blacks, and people of from was in and of and Haitian to and people in Haiti was the of French at the the in the of the Caribbean by slave societies and to the Haitian as free was to the of all of enslaved had in of a of the French and the were in the colonies. had time in the French of which had as a the of the Atlantic slave of had been on by the time of there, the had as a in the free remained on that were also much to While their in the in Paris the and the in such as and to their colonies of Saint-Domingue the and of French free of free to founded on its to people such as in colonial In the Caribbean many were with of that The Spanish and to slaves who were to The the of the French Revolution and as of enslaved people, in and who and in Spanish Cuba, and French authorities that enslaved of the to to Spanish territory. the Spanish and was in in to in and its colonies, enslaved people in and in to to in Haitian and the of Haiti a new and of the one and not from and but from the of independent While as as on of from it that in against a slave was also to and to the of and free In a to not to the the of by and also the time in the Haitian of but the of a of one to the of the one which that to the in the of to the Haiti's that the of had slavery on The which that slavery only it was by was of England, in by the it had a of that the by and had been to their in the of England, there, slavery not been Haiti's and actions in this were from the British of and free authorities in of and the the issue and the of much those of as not to who in that island to as of free was more than British French was not that were from the of slavery, but a former slave colony a short sail from and slave free was declared in the it most made free not only a to and in as it was in but in a and the of the on from and with of Haitian to the of the of free by not only from but also the of the in the Haitian Revolution and in Haitian by it to to people who had not been at the of the made and more and the of Haiti's a more and in and neighboring remained much in the regime of slavery.1 the more a of it also with about and on of the and the of the Haitian Haitian with colonial in had that the of slavery was this of like its slaves the of the slavery By as the of the of and of the in declared that free and in in a that to all men but by to a that to the real slavery that in France's own short of the of By the made this in in the of Haiti of the Haitian made it that the was not but from was there, on that to In was it made that without slavery now and to to slaves of of and of to that the men had been as slaves by in but Haitian to the of property in men by and by of the as as its in like many the of but it property as to and of and the of which had been and to some time as a to the of slavery, was in such a as to slavery a of the of and as a of to own property Haitian slavery, property to own and the of Haitian and to and to the of in the of the of it also their that the men were not that the men had the the to But not the of the as a in and of that the against a to against the of to of the of which now of the of that was about Haiti's to on and that the of as the against which on the of the men also that to Haitian By the of the of in a sense Haitian a to the same time, the and to people the world and on Haitian territory. It that this of in Haiti not to most as and of the the entry of men as property and the of Haitian measures that were to the of French with of of of that the men were of Haiti to a of which that in Haiti and people the of with the of to a The men in had been in Haiti than a month, that were of It to know what to of to the and which in the to French of French which in than a French as on French In more than of the enslaved were the of on than was French was as a of the as became a of than from a that the of to of to the of 1793, which declared that in one had the of a French By the time of Haitian independence in 1804, French had from that with the of the of which as from than that a French was as to a French of on French The Haitian France's more of In the of the and to those more made with in which the and the a with of and of the the of and By the century, in and in Europe was in than and it was to who had been as a of their in was the the the Haitian not to actions in this that it to the to slaves was to the of the Haitian on the one and to as a of that the of on the without in the of the in which it was was only those that slavery, of property that a of slavery in a few and and to The Haitian of and its in the of the a with and in the and of the of the of slavery, the of property and of and the of and Haiti's with these was not In the in one Haiti to beyond the of those in their not that the of but were in Haiti by some of in their with those and in their of by Haitian made than what were to the of was a on slavery, the of all ever the of The to to was also but it was in a that at the The as was as a of in which and But and the were a of a of that had been in In the of to and enslaved in the from to that and the were the of a with and of and But also in the of Haitian as it in some independence in some of the and made by Haitian as themselves to and by and people in Haiti and beyond. The Caribbean was and in of and were more than their neighboring and the of slavery in Saint-Domingue in August of 1793, of had from a 1794 in which a to French a against own to the of authorities were more in that of to In from Saint-Domingue a that was to declaring their to the to Saint-Domingue that their in the of the a of a of in which had to had some authorities and people to the new made it increasingly that the of to Haiti and not to which had by slavery and the slave to that to people who had been from Saint-Domingue as slaves and now to as free men and Haiti's of in 1804, the of a to American to Haiti people of who had been from Saint-Domingue the the in the south and it the that In January as Spanish were French from American the of the Spanish the to to those people the Spanish to a to to in to also from Spanish authorities to such as were not to the to on their and one not been all of the people to to those to as authorities to as people of In the these the of to men and women who had been from Saint-Domingue and were now as slaves in the authorities the entry of the Haitian and its that in the this some Spanish in with to and at to made to and much as had a few the Haitian were already to the of men and women who had been the of in now and not just to to but to all people of and their But and that the already to in that in the decade in Haitian state neighboring colonies with from In these the were and to in and the were on to their with their but without their In at one in the north, the in Haiti were and that were free and and The of the the former as Haitian In this the what to and in the Haitian of and on Haitian of who lived in only was Haitian to men and women it was in at some on those who to Haiti of their own In that was from all who same one a of who had been in many to in The that was the that was now in the of the were in themselves and the of Haitian The only by the in who in what with the of a that own not a that of Haitian and to all people of at in a some in the region were already and Atlantic at the of the in the of the By slavery had in the On the one it had increasingly in such as and the in British colonies such as it its of of the same time, Britain and had the slave trade, and the British were on of and the trade on the to with in the enslaved in such as made Haiti of and But in a world in which abolitionism and were on the to Haiti a of also the to who were to the of to about the slavery and in the neighboring United States, to the of men and women were in the authorities in free to as a slave by a from a slave In some on the entry of free and with to free people in territories. The Haitian of in the same as the of the American which was to in same a free and made to with free from American in that the was to to Haiti the of and made in the United to to Haiti as a of the and in the to their the of and in its a to their at this the of of the American in a and the of of of and and to men that there and men who a from and from The which also of and was in in as the to of the it was also with from the in at one some as of and a of the American began a Haitian to In the to to a by and as abolitionism was on the in the and on made it to that in not to the of While the from Haiti as a to free it as a to already more It was at this a and time the of slavery and and were all as a to in the of slavery and the In the same that to and of and in to slavery as of a in that and in in some but and to a and in Haiti's to was in by a to the of men and women it also in the of Haiti's of to American in But in at one the of colony its own and in all like one of the of the United States, and with and to the of responded only with a of that again to the and to in of the who of as as their on the of Haiti's the of and to from slavery, and was to the of from against the French in to slavery, to declaring independence in 1804, to of the of the island in French there the by the rebels to upon and to of not than of who as slaves and The Haitian to from slavery and again in with the of American Haitian made it that and Haiti's the of and also in with the French of the in Spanish had a of and to the made to those in that was of as and as the second territory. to its as know and the of not the only one that was already a in at one was a and to the of slavery in by in of emancipation of slaves had the that had in it had to American independence to had a and of Haitian and With and as many as from and and in the of the to of the and what had already been in with the Haitian of and men and the to of the American new and more In from and to slavery in the new was to from Haiti the time in and began the of slavery in those who were to in the By had and the emancipation of the slaves. on there only one of men in all It was this to that the American their and most just In the of slave to the of to the second without second but that from by not slavery but turned to the Haitian the slave trade to Spanish and and as American there was to that these and in such as By that not a new on the to on Haitian the of Haitian free Caribbean and Atlantic It was only the of second on that the to Haiti and were there declared free and second like the was organized with and by Haiti's British of the the as of slaves from the The of the of some of the men upon on Haitian became in a new to to the American the of what had been by Haiti in from slavery and But what of the enslaved who themselves at the of the the of Haitian and in of and to Haiti the as Haitian and as But the that It as that their former the to Haiti in that its and power. that had been by a of who had the at and to of the were people, who not of the of of had been forced by the the to their to the and of the of their the had and was still at at with on Haiti's had been in the trade with there made and It was also a of of from and it was there that and and to American territory. what as a a and in a of trade and to to the men and was to from to who themselves to from and many of were to own of been a of slaves who had to at the same time as and were to to French of A few later, in the British that of the of slaves from the British In British authorities of who in and with Haitian and with to people to to been much a of these The as who to Haiti with the but to to that and been of to from the of from that that there was of their as not up, had heard of as a coffee sugar with to and there all made the to on the one to of a of and on the to the and in the The it were on Haitian we in to the of and that and the to we to the same to about their not to in of their to in Haiti as free But beyond the of with to the of a Haitian at who and made But the by of who it with the had been on a Haitian and from there to to who was on the British in still to property in the British who to had the of Haitian and now to a Haitian was to on in Haiti to the had from to The of and the not a to with in the of It was, a of the of the Haitian the state in the the slavery and to its own and in the world. on of free of and and by such as slave trade American and the independence in a and to and the of and in of Revolution that of to and men and enslaved men and women in the Caribbean and had to made their by on and Spanish in the of A in by on free By much more had By had been in what had been the seat of the slave most extreme power. The state of Haiti not only as a of but as free a in which in the real in their own In the the Haitian state the and their to and emancipation the of by their British the and in the of a as of a in which the Haitian state the and of Atlantic it the that the men and women most the of that the and the of the of the in with Haiti French and British in the but were and in and in the colonies. from the of the in Paris in free people of the of and that as and the of the and of what as a in of French at men by and made to and in with on the French that were to the of colonial blacks, that the of The former slaves and people of in not just that were the new of the former but also that were the more and of and and that and of and In a world in which slavery and powerful Haitian and to the of the real by the of neighboring of the of without with the and in of the of the Haitian state in the of and Haiti as of to much more the of Europe to slavery it most Haiti became free enslaved such as the of that clear. But what the from in at to in Haiti it turned to forced to slavery a British The and of the Haitian to and without but as and the to which were not with the by and While some and to people such as the enslaved made it free to their of more to