Divergent behavioral ecological adaptation strategies of the dhole across open and closed habitats

The dhole ( Cuon alpinus Pallas, 1811) is a highly social apex predator, but its behavioral plasticity remains poorly understood. We tested whether differences in environmental conditions and prey distribution between open and closed habitats drive divergent behavioral strategies in dholes, focusing on activity rhythms, group size, and behavioral diversity. Based on behavioral plasticity theory in social carnivores, we predicted that dholes in open habitats would show stronger seasonal shifts in activity rhythms, larger group sizes, and higher behavioral diversity than those in closed habitats. From January 2020 to November 2025, we systematically deployed 823 camera traps across the main distribution areas of dholes in China. Using a posture–act–environment (PAE) coding framework, we constructed the first comprehensive ethogram for the species, including 14 postures, 29 environments, and 82 acts, which were further organized into 12 primary and 78 secondary behaviors. Cross-habitat comparisons showed that open dholes formed larger groups (2.45 ± 0.14 vs. 1.74 ± 0.09 individuals) and exhibited stronger seasonal shifts in activity rhythms (Δ_ open = 0.60 vs. Δ_ closed = 0.90), but showed no significant difference in behavioral diversity. Generalized linear models indicated that group size was an important factor explaining variation in behavioral diversity across habitats. These results support the hypothesis that dholes in open habitats exhibit stronger behavioral plasticity and suggest that they respond to environmental heterogeneity and resource variation by adjusting activity timing, grouping strategy, and behavioral composition.