Training the dairy workforce: Delivery methods, evaluation, and outcomes across worker tasks: A mini-review

As dairy farms consolidate and rely increasingly on hired and immigrant labor, consistent best-practice routines depend on how effectively a diverse workforce can be trained. This review examines training for the tasks dairy workers perform, such as milking, udder health, calf care, antimicrobial stewardship, euthanasia, and occupational safety, as well as the methods used to deliver it. Training, whether through workshops, hands-on demonstrations, online courses, or standard operating procedures, reliably increases knowledge and confidence, with the most pronounced improvements for tasks performed rarely or not previously taught. Hands-on instruction favors technical skill acquisition, while online and SOP-based approaches provide flexibility, repeatability, and easy translation for workers constrained by long shifts and turnover. Persistent challenges include language and literacy barriers and the dominance of reaction- and learning-level evaluation. Few studies document behavior change or herd-level impact. More robust study designs and the extension of evaluation toward impact are critical.