Answers are grounded in this paper and cite their sources.
Some purely methodological comments are made on the pitfalls and difficulties in making causal inferences from observational data, including in studies of disparity in medicine. The ideas of spurious correlation and measurement error are discussed with an eye towards their impact upon inferences about causality, and cautions are offered about over-reliance upon testing hypotheses.
No takes yet. Share an insight, caveat, or question.
Stephen M. Stigler (2005) studied this question.
Synapse has enriched 10 related papers. Consider them for comparative context: