Cognitive Engagement in Immersive Learning Environments: A Narrative Review and Proposed Conceptual Framework for Higher Education

The use of immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), extended reality (XR), and metaverse-based learning environments is transforming higher education by offering interactive, experiential, and student-centered learning opportunities. Despite the fragmented literature, however, there is little clear understanding about the impact of these technologies on learning processes and outcomes. This work aims to address this gap with a narrative review of 39 papers published in peer-reviewed, Scopus-indexed journals on the use of immersive technologies in higher education. Five main clusters emerged from the thematic synthesis: cognitive engagement and deep learning; pedagogical and instructional innovation; affective and experiential learning; immersive systems with AI; and technology adoption and usability. The results suggest that the focus of both applications shifted from technology to learning, from theory to practice, and from technology to cognition, with the latter serving as the key mechanism linking immersive environments to learning outcomes. Immersion, motivation, and interaction are benefits of using these technologies. However, the technology’s impact on learning depends on the quality of instructional design and the depth of cognitive processing it elicits. The study incorporates ideas from constructivist learning theory, cognitive load theory, and self-determination theory, suggesting a cognitive-engagement-based approach to immersive learning in higher education. The review helps advance theory by clarifying the role of cognitive engagement as a mediating construct and offers practical implications for creating effective immersive learning environments.