Transforming Carbon: A Review of CO2 Capture and Utilization Pathways, Potentials, and Challenges

Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) management requires technologies that pair emission reduction with durable carbon management. This review evaluates carbon capture and utilization (CCU) and carbon dioxide utilization (CDU) pathways across physical, chemical, biological, and mineralization routes. Following a PRISMA-informed search of Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, more than 11,000 peer-reviewed records published from 2000 to 2024 were screened; 927 full-text papers were assessed and 186 studies with extractable cost, scale, TRL, life-cycle assessment (LCA), or techno-economic assessment (TEA) data were retained for comparative synthesis. The analysis shows that fuels and commodity chemicals can offer large theoretical CO2 demand but usually provide temporary mitigation because carbon is re-emitted during use, whereas mineralization and some construction products provide more durable storage. Methanol, urea, dimethyl carbonate, polycarbonates, and CO2-cured concrete are closer to deployment, while electrochemical fuels, algae biofuels, and DAC-coupled conversion remain constrained by energy demand, hydrogen supply, water and land needs, cost uncertainty, and inconsistent system boundaries. A feasibility matrix combining TRL, breakeven-cost sensitivity, mitigation permanence, and market scale is introduced to guide technology selection. The review concludes that CCU can support decarbonization when powered by low-carbon energy, assessed with harmonized LCA/TEA methods, and deployed alongside CCS, direct air capture (DAC), mineralization, and rapid emissions reduction.