Integrating AHP and GIS for groundwater potential mapping: implications for spring sustainability in the Kosi River Basin, Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India

The sustainability of human life in mountain ecosystems relies heavily on perennial springs that sustain baseflow in non-glacier-fed rivers during lean periods. Springs are connected to aquifers through lineaments, emphasizing the need for groundwater potential zonation. This study aims to delineate groundwater potential zones using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) by overlaying seven thematic layers: land use/cover, lineament density, slope, drainage density, rainfall, lithology, and soil, weighted using ArcGIS. Results indicate that 70.9% of the study area falls under good to excellent groundwater potential zones, aligning with high-discharge perennial springs (10–30 L/m), while 29.1% corresponds to poor to fair potential zones linked with seasonal springs. Validation using Area Under Curve (AUC = 0.88) confirms the accuracy of the AHP approach. Study recommends structural recharge interventions in low-potential zones and highlights the utility of micro-watershed analysis for springshed management, offering valuable guidance for sustainable water resource planning in the Himalayas.