Transitive differential item functioning clustering: A graph-theoretic approach to identifying many-group partial measurement invariance.

-means, hierarchical) and naive approaches (assuming full invariance or noninvariance), yielding more accurate and less biased latent score estimates. An empirical application illustrates TDC's ability to detect complex partial invariance patterns overlooked by conventional methods and its ability to inform initial item screening in operational assessments. By providing a reproducible, theoretically grounded approach to establishing partial measurement invariance across many groups, TDC advances the fair and valid assessment of latent constructs in educational and psychological research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).