Analysis of drought carry-over effect on apple trees using the Leafiness-LiDAR index

Apple trees ( Malus × domestica Borkh.) are widely grown in Mediterranean regions, where drought-induced irrigation restrictions can impair canopy development and productivity. This study assessed the Leafiness-LiDAR Index (LLI), derived from terrestrial Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) point clouds, as a proxy for Leaf Area Index (LAI) and as a non-destructive indicator of canopy response and recovery following water deficit. An ‘Opal®’ apple orchard was monitored over three growing seasons (2023–2025), encompassing one drought year and two recovery years. In 2023, full irrigation (FI; 480 mm) was compared with deficit irrigation (DI; 300 mm; 37.5% less water) under two planting densities (0.5 and 1.0 m tree spacing). Mixed-effects models revealed significant Year × Irrigation interactions for LAI (p = 0.006) and LLI (p < 0.001), but not for yield (p = 0.654), suggesting a partial decoupling between structural and productive recovery. During the drought year, DI reduced LLI by 37% and yield by 47%. Following irrigation restoration, LLI differences persisted, particularly in 2024, indicating lasting structural effects of water deficit. Higher planting density promoted canopy recovery and increased yield. LLI proved to be a valuable, non-destructive estimator of LAI for detecting drought legacy effects and tracking canopy recovery, supporting precision orchard management under Mediterranean water scarcity.