Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.

Two experiments (modeled after J. Deese's 1959 study) revealed remarkable levels of false recall and false recognition in a list learning paradigm.In Experiment 1, subjects studied lists of 12 words (e.g., bed, rest, awake); each list was composed of associates of 1 nonpresented word (e.g., sleep).On immediate free recall tests, the nonpresented associates were recalled 40% of the time and were later recognized with high confidence.In Experiment 2, a false recall rate of 55% was obtained with an expanded set of lists, and on a later recognition test, subjects produced false alarms to these items at a rate comparable to the hit rate.The act of recall enhanced later remembering of both studied and nonstudied material.The results reveal a powerful illusion of memory: People remember events that never happened.