Three-dimensional (3D) microelectromagnets were developed to control particle motion in electromagnetic-field landscapes in vacuum near a chip. Multiple layers of micrometer-scale conductors separated by transparent insulators create particle containers with deep, symmetric, and time-dependent potentials, suitable for integration in quantum circuits. Single and coupled multiple 3D traps, integrated 3D traps with a mirror, 3D guides for neutral particles with spin, and traps for electrons in vacuum are described.
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Drndić et al. (2001) studied this question.
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